Monthly Archives: July 2019

Fire & Ice

27 26 July 2019

The VMS image at the top of folio 77r is often interpreted as the four elements (air, earth, fire, and water). But there are five pipes, not four. I did find one medieval representation with a fifth component in the center called null, and some conceptions include a fifth “element” as spirit, aether, or void, so it’s not unreasonable to suppose the diagram might represent elements:

Medieval representations of the elements took many forms, from simple lists and block drawings to elaborate illuminations. Some of them take their cues from ancient writings:

Yes, even things which we call elements, do not endure. Now listen well to me, and I will show the ways in which they change. The everlasting universe contains four elemental parts. And two of these are heavy—earth and water—and are borne downwards by weight. The other two devoid of weight, are air and—even lighter—fire: and, if these two are not constrained, they seek the higher regions. These four elements, though far apart in space, are all derived from one another. Earth dissolves as flowing water! Water, thinned still more, departs as wind and air; and the light air, still losing weight, sparkles on high as fire. But they return, along their former way: the fire, assuming weight, is changed to air; and then, more dense, that air is changed again to water; and that water, still more dense, compacts itself again as primal earth.
Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book 15

Sometimes an effort was made to relate elements to other concepts that fell into groups of four, eight, or twelve.

I didn’t want to assume the mysterious emanations from the VMS pipes were elements without investigating other possibilities, such as

traits (hot, cold, wet, and dry),
humors (black or yellow bile, blood, or phlegm), or possibly
temperaments (sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, or melancholic)
the four Anemoi (Oricus, Occidens, Auster, Borea),
seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter), or
stages of life/wheel of fortune.

In the following chart, we see Ignis, Aer, Aqua and Terra in the center, above which are the four humors, and to the right a group of hot/cold/wet/dry traits that are frequently associated with medicinal plants:

Levels of Complexity in Medieval Charts

Simple visual charts conveyed many of these basic ideas. This chart displays the elements in rings, beginning with earth in the center:

Huntington EL26A3 chart of the elements — Schematic of elements earth, water, air, fire, and “aiers pur” [Huntington EL 26A3]

Noe that there are five labeled rings, with a dark-blue ring on the outer edge called aiers pur

Sometimes there is no text. The colors and shapes tell the story, or the text is separate from the diagrams:

This simple 13th-century chart interposes traits between the four elements. Later in the manuscript the same idea was drawn with slight differences, as though the illustrator were experimenting with ways to present the information:

Elements and traits chart in Digby 107. — Elements form the outer ring, with traits in semicircles between them [Bodleian Digby 107]

Arrangements varied considerably. This is one of the less common ones, from a mid-15th century medical/astronomical text. The elements are stacked within an enclosing circle in a different order from the preceding Huntington diagram, (aqua, ter[r]a, aer, ignis).

Note the marker at the top of the chart, and the numerous Latin abbreviation symbols that encircle the diagrams (characteristics similar to the VMS). This is a small-format manuscript (207 x 145mm):

Morgan MS B.27 diagram of the elements — Simple schema illustrating water, earth, air, and fire [Morgan MS B.27]

Another diagram in Digby 107 places the elements Ignis, Aer, Aqua, and Terra in the corners, with connections through hot/cold/wet/dry along the sides. Contraria forms a cross in the center:

Here Ignis, Aqua, Aer, and Terra are also in the corners, along with their associated traits. There are conceptual connections through the sides like the previous diagram, except that “[con]trarie” is on two of the outer connections instead of in the center, with “Remitentes” on the other two sides. Further connections have been added cross-wise to connect the corners:

Schematic diagram of elements in Ms Misc. Alchemical XII — Elements schematically connected through the sides and center [Misc. Alchemical XII]

Coming back to Morgan MS B.27, sometimes the elements were related to humans rather than to a schematic of the heavens, a trend that became more prevalent in the century after this was created, with the rise of humanism (which had a greater emphasis on independent, scientific thought and the individual). Note the lines in the background form a shape similar to the divisions used for medieval horoscopes:

Diagram of man and elements in Morgan MS B.27

In the next example, temperaments, traits, and elements have been further related to the constellations on the ecliptic (the zodiac constellations):

zodiac and elements are combined in the same chart in Morgan MS B.12 — Zodiac constellations are included in the outer rim of the chart. together with other fourfold temperaments, traits, and elements [Morgan MS B.12]

The following diagram lists the elements and traits around the outer edge and the humors in spokes radiating from the center. It includes a schematic illustration of the moon, “planets”, and stars at the top (the Sun was in the middle of the planets because it was wrongfully assumed it orbited the Earth):

Morgan B27 has attracted the attention of Voynich researchers due to the little flower-shape and text within concentric circles, but I was also intrigued by the content, which includes elements, traits, plants, zodiac constellations, and month names:

Morgan B27 schematic diagram of elements, traits, and zodiac constellation names

Note that the month names are Ianuari[us], Februari[us], Marcius, Apprilis, Maius, Iuni[us], Iulius, August[us], Septe’ber, October, Nove’ber, and Dece’ber. The language/spelling is different, but some of the abbreviation symbols are the same as the month-notes added to the VMS zodiac figures.

Sometimes these various schema (left) were combined with concepts of gravitational forces, as in the two examples on the right. It was common to illustrate gravity as people standing on the earth on four sides with their feet anchored to the ground. The diagram bottom-right is a little different because it includes animals with the people:

Four charts of medieval concepts of elements and gravitational forces

Sometimes the gravity diagrams include “tunnels” toward the center of the earth or a rock plummeting into the center. The following diagram is primarily to illustrate gravity (note how the characters are slouched as though they are being pulled toward the globe):

BNF Français 14964 image of gravitational forces. — Four people on the globe, pulled toward the Earth by gravitational forces [BNF Français 14964]

I thought it might be possible to relate the figures on VMS 57v to temperaments or one of the other groups of four, but it’s hard to explain the various parts of the drawing as a cohesive whole and I prefer K. Gheuen’s idea (I wish I had thought of it), described in this blog about the wheel of fortune:

Toward a Concept of a Unified Whole

LJS 449 has one of the more complicated charts, where everything except the kitchen sink has been crammed into one diagram. If you have read my blog about mappae mundi you may notice that this chart is oriented in the common way of the time, with east at the top, the direction of the rising sun.

The traits and temperaments are beneath the four corner circles and between them are the 12 winds. Note the space-filling “justification” squiggles between the text blocks in the outer circle:

So those are a few of the medieval concepts that might be creatively illustrated with something emanating from pipes, or perhaps in a wheel with four people with their feet pointing toward the center, as in VMS 85r2:

Could 84r2 be a diagram of gravitational forces?

Maybe, if it has been combined with other ideas (like the four temperaments), but it would be unusual for a picture of gravity to have the sun in the center unless this illustrator knew something other people at the time did not (that the core of the Earth is intensely hot, or that the Sun was a prime gravitational force in our solar system, a heretical idea).

The diagram on the facing page also has four figures, each one holding a different object (possibly an attribute), with a moon rather than a sun in the center, suggesting a connection between the two folios:

There are two full pages of text between this diagram and the next one, so perhaps this section was important to the designer in some way.

Following these textural/figural rota is the foldout “map” that nay also incorporate fourfold schemata, as discussed in previous blogs. Perhaps the four corners are fire, water, earth, and air:

Other Possibilities

Magical diagrams are sometimes organized in groups of four.

Here is a 15th-century charm against the plague from the Leechbook (Wellcome Library) drawn in a style similar to humors and temperaments:

Wellcome Library Leechbook charm against the pestilence

The text in charms often consists of names of angels, prayers, and “power” words (some of which can be traced back to ancient times, while others are a mystery). Sometimes they are accompanied by medicinal recipes.

Here is a similarly constructed talisman for protection in battle:

But maybe VMS 77r has nothing to do with elements (in the schematic sense), or humors, traits, temperaments, or charms. Maybe it’s part of a story.

Could the various emanations from the pipes and cloudlike textures represent hail, rain, fire, and blood as described in classical literature and biblical passages?

If so, then perhaps the figures in loges on either sides are celestial beings—God’s emissaries carrying out his wishes (which apply to several religions, not just Christianity), and the ones on the lower left of 77r might be dishing out storms, floods, and other natural disasters.

Here is a 12th-century illustration of a tempest of fire, hail, and blood:

The first trumpet, Beatus manuscript [c. 1180, The Met]

Illustrations of plagues and calamitous weather are also found in Hebrew manuscripts, such as “the plague of hail” in the Hispano-Moresque Haggadah, Castile, c.1300.

The blowing of the third trumpet in the Cloisters Apocalypse, c. 1330. — I forgot to include this image when I posted this blog. It is another example of a trumpet, lines to represent sound, prone individuals below, and a burning star. The call of the third trumpet. [Source: The Cloisters Apocalypse, c. 1330]

More of this occurs in Morgan M.644. Here the emanations are accompanied by a plague of scorpions:

The apocalyptic red sun and falling star, Morgan MS M.644

As an aside, note how M.644 uses a band of stars, rather than a cloudband, to define the celestial borders (above and right). This is more like old Egyptian borders on friezes and coffins than later medieval cloudbands, but the context is the same.

M.644 also incorporates numerous groups of four, including winged beings, four discs with dark-light slightly spiraled patterns, and 24 stars in the perimeter (6 groups of 4) and, in the center, the lamb of God (looking more like a horse than a lamb):

Groups of four in Morgan M.633, c. 940s Apocalypse manuscript — Agnus Dei surrounded by numerous motifs in groups of four [Morgan Library, New York, Morgan M.633, c. 940s Apocalypse manuscript]

In this early Spanish illustration, there are streams and corpses and a falling, burning star, with an angel (a clothed nymph?) orchestrating events:

The apocalyptic burning star, Morgan MS M.644 — Streams, corpses and a burning star [Spain, c. 940s, Morgan MS M.644]

Is the same theme in the VMS? If we pretend nymphs in airborne loges are divine beings, are they working the celestial machinery?

Voynich Manuscript f82r nymphs and possibly a corpse

I’m beginning to think that the VMS nymphs aren’t nymphs at all. Maybe we should think of the ones in loges as “celestial engineers” who alternately guide the viewer or orchestrate earthly events. If so, perhaps the pipes at the top of 77r have more to do with natural elements or mythical calamities than the classifications of Aristotle.

J.K. Petersen

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Postscript 21 August 2019: If you scan back through this blog, you will see that I posted an image of “the first trumpet” from a Beatus manuscript, with textures streaming out of the end of the trumpet. This image exemplifies the point of the blog—that streaming textures don’t have to be Aristotelian-style elements, they can be other things, including temperaments, humors, sound, messages, or biblical-style calamities.

The idea that the poofs coming out of the VMS pipes might be something other than earth, air, fire, water, and spirit/aether has haunted me for years, but it wasn’t until I started focusing on Agnus Dei, early this year, that the idea of calamitous weather hit me, as well.

I was reluctant to post this blog because I knew I had another image in my files that included not just one trumpet, but several—but I couldn’t locate it among my terabytes of VMS imagery and my blogs tend to sit for a long time in Draft mode when I can’t find a specific image, so I posted it anyway.

I found the missing image today and have cropped it to emphasize the part with the trumpets. Note how each angel at the level just above the Earth has wings of a different color, just as the emanations from each VMS pipe is a slightly different texture or color. Four of these angels have trumpets, and one is dispensing emanations from a lidded chalice (a chalice often refers to Christ’s blood as a metaphor for spirit or the Godhead), so we have 1 + 4 to possibly match 1 + 4 in the VMS “pipes”:

Row of angels dispensing redemption or calamities as directed by God. — A row of angels between heaven and earth dispense God’s judgment by pouring spiritual redemption (a chalice with Christ’s blood captured at the crucifixion) or various forms of calamitous weather (often wind, fire, flooding rain, or hail) [BNF Néerlandais 3]

Imagine that the nymphs on either side of the VMS folio in their respective “zoomers” are angels in charge of dispensing God’s commands. Also imagine that the VMS pipes are metaphorical trumpets, and each poof out of a pipe is some sort of calamity (e.g., rain, wind, fire, hail). Fire and hail (and sometimes frogs) were especially popular in terms of heavenly onslaughts. It’s possible the empty pipe refers to wind or to spirit in much the same way as the lidded chalice of blood sometimes refers to spirit or spiritual redemption (it is sometimes also a flaming chalice).

I don’t know if this is what the pipes represent, I still think temperaments, humors, or traditional elements are possible, but since this images helps clarify one of the possibilities I haven’t seen suggested by other researchers, I wanted to share it with readers.

J.K. Petersen

Postscript 13 May 2020: Here are two more drawings that illustrate how the textures coming out of the “pipe” on f77r might not be elements in the medieval scientific sense but, alternately, could be forces of nature like wind, water, fire, and hail, as suggested in this blog.

These are from the Wellcome Apocalypse (MS49) and they show the various calamities that could be “rained down” by God if people didn’t behave themselves (with thanks to Arca Librarian for pointing out that this manuscript is now online).

Note the different textures used for each form of weather:

Missing Links

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21 July 2019

The Voynich Manuscript has 10 figural themes patterned after zodiac symbols, where one would usually expect 12. Two have been duplicated in different colors. The unduplicated figures are surrounded by 30 nymphs each, the others 15. The figures for Aquarius and Capricon, which are usually at the beginning and end of traditional sequences, are missing (or were not necessary for whatever purpose the designer intended).

Over the years, I have collected more than 550 early zodiac sequences, most of them complete. It’s becoming difficult to find ones I don’t already have, so I’ve only located three more in the last year, but 550+ is probably enough to post some general observations.

VMS Layout

In the VMS, the double fish we associate with Pisces follow directly after a section with a lot of moon and starburst shapes, so there isn’t space to insert a seemingly missing Aquarius. The last figure, the crossbowman, falls before a completely different section with nymphs in green pools, so there may be a folio missing after Sagittarius:

It doesn’t seem likely that the two “Aries” drawings stand for Capricorn (or for Aries and Capricorn), since the sequence would be wrong, and Taurus has been duplicated as well. Similarly, the extra Taurus would not be a good stand-in for the missing Capricorn or Aquarius, so it seems probable that Aries and Taurus are four halves of two wholes.

Sources

Most medieval zodiacs were added to astrology/astronomy manuscripts, books of hours (where they served as embellishments along with months’ labors), missals (although less frequently), and books of general knowledge that include sections on cosmology or astrology.

This blog is a continuation of a series of combination-searches and will not delve into Aquarius. Aquarius imagery can be quite variable, even among similar traditions, which makes it hard to guess what Aquarius might have looked like if it were part of the original VMS.
Instead, this blog focuses on zodiacs with crayfish-Cancer and lizard-like Scorpius, because they appear to represent a distinct subgroup in terms of thematic content and execution (about 7%). See previous blogs for other combinatoins.

Incomplete Zodiacs

It’s not difficult to find zodiac series with fewer than 12 figures. Sometimes drawings have been cut out, sometimes the series is unfinished (or has been sketched but not painted). Occasionally there are mistakes. But usually it’s evident that 12 figures were intended. With the VMS, the intent is not so clear but we can look at some incomplete sets to see what they offer.

The following manuscript was significantly vandalized, with only four zodiac figures spared and many of the months’ labors excised, as well. The four remaining figures (aquatic critters and crawly things) are contained within gold-filled roundels and show a mixture of traditions—the uncommon lizard-like Scorpius combined with the classical “Capri-Pisces” (goat-fish), also known as a sea-goat:

Significantly defaced zodiac in BNF Latin 8885 — Vandalized zodiac series in BNF Latin 8885 (14th century). Note that Scorpius has been erroneously placed in the month labeled September rather than its usual place in October.

Taking Stock

In the vandalized zodiac, Pisces is blue, and the fish have long noses.

Color variations are common in copied manuscripts, even those with identical figures, but in this case the blue fish seems to be an underlying theme that is carried over to other manuscripts, as will be shown in the following examples. Cancer is a crayfish, Scorpio is lizard-like (these are medieval innovations), but Capricorn is a classical seagoat dating back thousands of years.

After going through my files numerous times, I’m fairly confident that the vandalized missal is in the same general tradition as a subgroup from France/Normandy/Flanders that is discussed below. This might be relevant to the VMS because crayfish-Cancer combined with a somewhat reptilian Scorpius represents less than 10% of 550+ examples.

Scorpius is generally represented by one of these four themes: a real scorpion (sometimes badly drawn), a turtle, a dragon, or a vaguely reptilian creature.
Cancer is typically a crayfish/lobster or a crab.

So let’s look at the general characteristics of this specific group of manuscripts…

Crayfish & Lizardy Scorpius Mixed with Classical Themes

Here is an example from early 13th century France that includes long-nosed blue fish, crayfish-Cancer, and lizardy-Scorpius, anomalously blended with classical scales-with-figure, centaur and seagoat. Sometimes the tail of the seagoat is more like a shell than a fish, but both commonly represent Capricorn:

Morgan MS M.153 from France, 13th century. It includes mostly traditional themes, except that it has a crayfish-Cancer and lizard-like Scorpius. Note the tail wound through Taurus’s legs. This is unusual and generally reserved for Leo.

The long-nosed fish are in the minority (about 12%). The majority are normal or blunt. The fish in the VMS have slight touches of blue, and have long noses and scales from top to bottom, but do not have a connecting line between them, as is common. Instead each has a line connecting to a star (and a somewhat ambiguous blue line added with paint):

pic of VMS zodiac symbol two fishes (Pisces)

The next zodiac series, from c. 1230s Paris, is clearly similar to Morgan M.153.

It has the long-nosed blue fish, Taurus with his tail through his legs, the crayfish, and reptilian Scorpius. They are framed by gold-filled roundels. Note the tree in Aries, which almost looks like a tail. I don’t think there’s a direct relationship between them, but coincidentally, the VMS feline has a tail that almost looks like a tree:

These themes are repeated in the mid-13th century in a number of manuscripts. The first example below is said to be from England (although this might be debated). The second and third from Paris, France. They are all drawn with gold-embellished roundels. Each one has a blue fish and a medieval-style reptilian Scorpius combined with classical themes.

Unfortunately the twins and crayfish are missing in Morgan M.103, but it’s not a stretch to imagine that Gemini was probably nude twins behind a shield and Cancer was a crayfish. If it is indeed from England, then Cancer might be a crab:

This one, from France, does not have a blue fish, but has obvious thematic similarities to Morgan M.153 and M.92. Note in particular the tail threaded through the legs of Taurus:

The following Psalter zodiac has fish of two different colors, but one is blue. It too includes a crayfish rather than a crab, and a lizard-like Scorpius within gold roundels:

A Book of Hours from the Diocese of Thérouanne (early 1300s) lacks the blue fish, but is thematically like the others and Taurus has his tail between his legs:

So far I have only seen 25 examples of Taurus with the leg-tail (less than 5% of zodiacs) and only 10 were paired with crayfish-Cancer and lizardy-Scorpius. One was paired with a crayfish and a turtle-Scorpius. They range in date from c. 1220s to c. 1478 with most of them being from the 13th and 14th centuries. Thus, this combination forms a distinct subgroup if one considers that most are from France and contained within gold circles.

The Scorpius drawing that most resembles the VMS critter is Douce 313 (c. 1350s, Paris), but it is unlike the VMS in other ways, relying on classical themes for Gemini, Cancer, Libra, Sagittarius, and Capricorn, and enclosing the figures within decorative frames:

Contrasting Examples

To see how this group of zodiacs contrasts with some of the others from the 13th and 14th centuries, here is an example from England or Normandy with rectangular frames, a crab-Cancer, and somewhat ambiguous Scorpius (it’s hard to tell if it’s a scorpion or a lizardy version). Note also that Capricorn is a regular goat and a lot of action is going on in each scene, with numerous figures playing out roles (it is unusual in this regard):

In Royal MS 2 B VII, the nude Gemini twins are behind a shield, as in the crayfish roundel zodiacs, but in the following two examples, the twins lack the shield or are fully clothed.

This one from southern Italy (c. 1320s) features crab-Cancer, a real scorpion, and rectangular, highly decorated frames. It’s interesting that it has long-nosed blue fish (possibly dolphin-fish):

There is a similarly decorative zodiac in Breviari d’Amour (Yates Thompson 31) from Spain (c. 1340) patterned after classical themes except for the clothing on Aquarius and Gemini:

Back to the Crayfish-Lizardy Group

Ms Typ 311 is from the far north of France (St. Riquier), and eventually ended up in the Houghton Library at Harvard. It too has blue fish and a lizardy Scorpius, combined with classical Virgo, Libra, and Capricorn (Aquarius and Gemini were probably scraped because they were nude):

Another zodiac was created in France in the mid-13th century that is very similar to the previous crayfish roundel-zodiacs, but note how the illustrator added trees to both Aries and Taurus:

Yates Thompson MS 13 (prob. England, c. 1330s) also has trees in Aries and Taurus, and a lizardy Scorpius, but Cancer is a crab and there is only a hand rather than a full figure for Libra, which puts it in a slightly different illustrative branch. In general, English manuscripts favor the crab rather than the crayfish.

Here is another 13th-century example from Paris with teal-blue fish and gold-filled roundels:

The Grosbois Psalter Hours from Liège includes wreath-like tendrils on the circular frame, but the subject matter is consistent with the others, with the exception of Libra, which is only the scales, no figure:

Grosbois Psalter-Hours, Morgan MS M.440 zodiacs

This difference in Libra might be significant, perhaps even relevant to the VMS, because Germanic manuscripts with crayfish/lizard are more likely to have no-figure Libra than the French manuscripts. Liège is in eastern Belgium, by the German border. Perhaps it was a transmission point between the two traditions:

Trinity B-11-5 (Normandy) has clear thematic similarities to the previous examples, but note the unusual scales on the blue fish and the fat trees as props for Gemini and Virgo. Like the previous zodiac, the Libra scales are not held by a full figure. Unlike the previous one, a hand has been added. Note also the pawlike hooves on Aries:

In the late 13th century in Switzerland, they adopted the same general themes (and gold-filled roundels), except the twins are in a barrel instead of behind a shield, and the lizardy-Scorpius looks more like a turtle (maybe a tarasque). Also note that Libra does not include a figure. Thus, as might be expected, the Swiss zodiac falls somewhere between the French and German styles:

By now it should be clear that illustrators often individualized line quality, poses, and colors, while still maintaining thematic similarities with other manuscripts (including the gold-embellished roundels).

This is a fairly rare subset of zodiacs. Reptilian scorpions, long-nosed blue fish, and crayfish Cancer specifically combined with classical themes within gold roundels account for less than 10% of medieval zodiacs. See my previous blogs for maps and other combination-searches.

Diverging from Tradition, But Only a Little

Around the middle of the 13th century, an illustrator in Arras got creative, as did others nearby. The Psalter-Hours of Gulluys de Boisieux (Morgan M.730) retains the same combination of medieval and traditional themes, including long-nosed fish, but adds an unusual pair of wings to the seagoat and sets them within rectangular frames. The tail extending beyond the frame is similar to Morgan M.440:

The above Psalter is significant in another way as it is one of the earliest crayfish/lizardy manuscripts to present Gemini as an affectionate couple. We can’t tell if they are twins or lovers, it’s not a marriage pose, but it is a distinct departure from a pair of nude males behind a shield. Arras is in northeast France near the Belgian border.

In this example from Paris, the general themes are the same as the early examples, including the Gemini shield. The main difference is the diamond-shaped frames:

Ludwig VIII 4, c. mid-13th century, Paris, France

Someone in Liège was even more innovative with frames, but retained the same themes (although the fish are more gray than blue). Unlike the earlier example from Liège, with the no-figure Libra, this one is consistent with the Parisian themes:

Note that all the frames so far are filled with gold except for Douce 313.

The frames around these figures from France are individualized and ornate, but the themes are the same. The main difference is decorative rather than gold-filled backgrounds, but the frame edges are gold:

In this example from Paris, the frame is scalloped instead of round, and delicately patterned rather than filled with gold, but nevertheless includes the crayfish, long-nosed blue fish, and vaguely reptilian Scorpius:

Zodiac sequence in Morgan M.75 — Morgan M.75, circa 1350, Paris, France

Thus we see a gradual movement away from the use of gold toward the latter part of the 14th century. It’s possible the plague years (1346-53) contributed to this change.

So why are most of these examples from France, rather than evenly distributed between France and England? Because English zodiacs generally favored the crab rather than a crayfish, and a dragon rather than a vaguely reptilian, more lizard-like Scorpius. The VMS includes a crayfish and lizardy Scorpius, so it is more similar to the French and Germanic manuscripts than those from England.

This is a more humble manuscript (mid-14th century) from southeastern France. There’s no gold in the roundels, but the themes are the same, except for two significant differences… the goat is a real goat, not a goat-fish, and the Libra scales are not held by a figure—thus it shares characteristics with both French and German zodiacs:

This French Psalter from the late 14th century includes decorative roundels, and a clothed, affectionate couple as Gemini (the man’s tunic has baggy sleeves). Most of the French zodiacs in this tradition feature nude male Gemini, so I wondered whether it might be from eastern France or the Alsace. It’s more similar to the VMS than most of the others, except that Libra, Sagittarius, and Capricorn are classical styles:

When I saw this zodiac, it occurred to me that the departure from tradition in choosing an affectionate Gemini may have been influenced by the very popular Roman de la Rose but it might be difficult to confirm whether this is so.

The Other Side of Europe

Meanwhile, in c. 1390s Prague, there is a manuscript the follows the French themes except it has a no-figure Libra and a real scorpion. It caught my attention because the fish are so similar to those in the VMS. They have very long noses, the scales go from top to bottom, they are slightly wavy, and there is no line between them connecting their mouths:

BSB clm 826 Pisces detail — Long-nosed all-over-scales Pisces in a Prague manuscript that is mostly in the same style as the French manuscripts, with crayfish-Cancer, centaur, and goatfish. But like the Germanic manuscripts, Libra does not have a figure. In common with the VMS, the lion does have his tail between his legs, but his tongue is not sticking out. BSB Clm 826 ~~825~~ (c. 1378 to c. 1419).

Unfortunately, other than the no-figure Libra and the crayfish, nothing else about the series has much in common with the VMS, so perhaps the similarity to the fish is coincidental or perhaps there is an intermediary source with long-nosed fish.

It’s not certain where the following manuscript is from (I wonder whether it might be Provençe), but it fits thematically with the others even though the figures are intended to represent constellations and are not within roundels. The stated date is 1395, but I would have guessed early 15th century based on the drawing style and text. Note that Cancer is unusual, as it includes both a crab and a crayfish:

The same manuscript includes a Zodiac Man illustration in a slightly different style, with a lizardy Scorpius that is somewhat like the VMS and even more similar to the green salamander in herbal manuscript Sloane 4016:

Unusual Framing

In terms of color and style, one would expect the following French manuscript to be from the late 15th century, but the repository says it’s early 15th-century (if so, it is remarkable for its time). The lavish colors and decorative frames set it apart, but the figural themes are consistent with the earlier French gold-filled roundels:

This early-15th-century example from the Netherlands is stylistically very different from anything else I’ve seen, and it doesn’t include a blue fish or seagoat, but otherwise, it’s thematically similar to the French manuscripts, with the addition of a protruding tongue on the lion. Since this person could draw better than most, it is obvious that the lizardy Scorpius is deliberate and not just a bad drawing of a scorpion:

Cross-Border Influence

The same general themes can be found in Catalonia, Switzerland, Austria and Bavaria, but there are some notable differences…

Morgan M.711 (Germany, c. 1230s) is thematically similar to the French subgroup, except that there is no figure holding the Libra scales and Capricorn is a goat:

In the German-speaking countries, the color of the fish was less often blue, and they didn’t always have long noses. The frames were similar (they were often circular), but the twins were more varied, and often clothed. Scorpius was sometimes a scorpion or a turtle rather than a lizard.

Most of the French examples included a full figure for Libra and the German ones (in the same tradition) generally omitted the figure. Note also that the French zodiacs favor the centaur while some of the Germanic manuscripts have two-legged Sagittarius. Might these details be important to localizing the VMS?

Here are examples from the Stammheim Missal, Austria Gradual Sequentiary, and Augsberg Psalter that I’ve posted in previous blogs. Note the turtle in the latter two (Hildegard von Bingen also drew Scorpius with a turtle shell):

In this example, possibly from Augsburg, the roundels have been replaced by arches and the archer has human legs, but the themes are the same:

This one (Augsburg, c. 1300) has arches, as well. I’ve posted it several times because there are numerous similarities to the VMS, including an affectionate couple and a human archer:

This c. 1350s example is thought to be from Germany. There is no gold fill, and the painting style is more sketchy than the above examples, but the themes are the same as other Germanic manuscripts. Scorpius is noteworthy because it looks more like a dog than a lizard, but it has a “sail” similar to some species of lizards.

Note that the lion has its tongue sticking out, Gemini is clothed, Capricorn is a goat, and the archer has two legs (characteristics more similar to the VMS):

BSB clm 13076 zodiacs — BSB Clm 13076 (probably from Germany, 1356), has more in common with the VMS than French manuscripts featuring a crayfish and lizard-like Scorpius, but differs in that the lion doesn’t have its tail between its legs and Libra is held by a figure.

A zodiac sequence that is particularly significant (and similar in drawing style to Clm 13076) is Codex Sang. 827 from Lake Constance (but not from St. Gall). It combines a crossbowman with the crayfish and maybe a lizardy scorpion, although I suspect it’s a bad drawing of a scorpion.

The main differences between this manuscript and the French ones are that Libra does not include a figure, Sagittarius has two legs, and Capricorn is a goat. In common with the VMS, it has a crossbowman with baggy sleeves, and a crouching or sitting Virgo. However, nude male Gemini differs from the VMS:

This one from Catalonia (possibly Gerona), is missing Gemini, and Capricorn is a unicorn-goat rather than a seagoat, but it is otherwise thematically similar to the French crayfish/lizard zodiacs:

BNF Français 1601 zodiac — Zodiac in a Breviary written in Occitan, BNF Français 1601.

Origins of This Thematic Tradition

Where did this particular combination of crayfish and reptilian Scorpius originate? As I’ve mentioned in previous blogs, I think one of the sources may have been carvings on cathedrals. Here is an example from the Basilique Ste. Madeleine in West Burgundy, France (there is a similarly-themed set in Chartres Cathedral). It combines the medieval Cancer and Scorpius with the classical centaur, goatfish, and Virgo:

Relief carvings, west Burgundy, circa 12th century

Italian and Spanish manuscripts usually feature Cancer as a crab, Sagittarius as a centaur, and Scorpius as a scorpion, which is why they don’t fit well in this particular subgroup. There is one from Bologna (c. 1400) that is stylistically unusual that features affectionate Gemini, a 4-legged goat, and a crayfish, thus incorporating some of the German characteristics:

The zodiac in De Sphaera (Cristofor de Predis of the Lombard School, c. 1470) combines the French and German themes:

English manuscripts almost always have Cancer as a crab and Scorpio as a dragon or a traditional scorpion.

Summary

This combination-search focuses on one particular theme, the crayfish-lizardy combination, and yet even though the scope is narrow, it’s quite informative. There is a clear subgroup that combines these two figures with classical drawings and most of them are in France/Normandy/Flanders. However, the influence of this line can be seen in Germanic zodiacs, especially those in west and south Germany.

How Does the VMS Crossbow Fit In?

Crossbow zodiacs are rare, only a dozen out of 550+. They are similar to the French group in having male twins and a crayfish (except for one that has a badly drawn crab), but they usually omit the figure from Libra and include a real scorpion. Only three ~~two~~ of the crossbow zodiacs include a clothed male/female Gemini. The first has a “turtle” scorpion, the second a real one. Both are similar to the German subgroup in having a real goat rather than a seagoat:

There is also an incomplete Brevier zodiac from Breslau/Prague that is potentially similar to Pal. Germ. 148 (I don’t know who originally found this, but it has been mentioned by other VMS researchers), but note that it has a figure for Libra, so it might be in between French and German traditions and may not have included a crayfish or lizard-scorpion:

Summary

The crayfish/lizard combination is more common in the French/Flanders group, and the crossbow/affectionate Gemini combination only shows up (so far) in German and Czech/Polish manuscripts (these are pinpointed on maps in earlier blogs). Thus, the VMS figures seem to fit somewhere between the French and German examples.

In terms of drawing style and thematic choices, Cod. Sang. 827 from Lake Constance (15th c), Pal. Germ. 298 from Augsburg, and Ms Germ. fol. 557 are similar to one another and similar to the VMS, except for the nude male Gemini twins:

Cgm 28 (Schwabia, c. 1460) is painted differently and is more detailed, but it fits with the above examples, as well:

As does BSB Cgm 312 (also from Schwabia), which includes text within the roundel frames:

But they are not quite as similar as this c. 1440s zodiac from Seckau Austria, which has grazing Aries and Taurus with trees, undulating long-nosed fish, no-figure Libra, a clothed affectionate Gemini, two-legged Sagittarius, and a more lizard-like scorpion than the previous examples:

When the ten symbols are taken as a whole, the VMS zodiac sequence fits most comfortably with the Alsace/Schwabia/Bavaria/Austria manuscripts. The drawing styles are different and the exemplars for individual figures don’t necessarily come from zodiacs, but if you lift Virgo and the crossbowman out of Cod. Sang. 827 and fuse them into BSB Clm 13076 or Graz Ms. 386 (and hand out a few stars on strings), the thematic result is a close cousin to the VMS.

J.K. Petersen

Dragon Tails

Overview of Herbal Traditions

Most diagrams of herbal illustrative traditions are of this form:

This kind of chart is helpful for an overview of illustrative descent, but it doesn’t help one to see or compare the drawings. So I created a new kind of chart…

I organized the information so that each dot on the chart is replaced with an image of the plant. I can choose any plant in any manuscript that is included in the files and, in a few seconds, display the relationships among them (this is the result of more than 11 years of comparison, classification, and identification of medieval plant drawings and is still ongoing).

The chart below is a small corner of a very large diagram that compares more than 75 herbal manuscripts from the 6th century to the 16th century (there are also sources from the 17th century, but I have not included them in this VMS-related discussion).

For this example, the English manuscripts are not visible in the first excerpt (they are off to the right), as they form yet another distinctively recognizable group. Aristolochia is not native to the United Kingdom, but it is interesting that it appeared in English manuscripts from about the 11th century onward, usually in a viny style with a round or spindly root.

Harley 4986 stands out from the more typical English manuscripts because Aristolochia longa was drawn with a round root. It may have been mistaken for another plant (it is labeled Aristocia longa but looks like a drawing of Cyclamen).

The Process of Identification

I had some background in plants before I learned about the VMS, and I should point out that visual similarity was not the only criterion for organizing these images. The names of the plants and their spellings often help to confirm the pictorial features, together with the order in which the plants are represented (sometimes even the page numbers match). I consulted textual herbals, as well (those without diagrams). All these flagposts were taken into consideration. There may still be small details to adjust but, for the most part, I believe the IDs to be good.

I’ve simplified the layout for blog display by taking out the relationship arrows. Organizing the chart with thumbnails for each plant makes it easier to compare and contrast the drawings. The dates in this example are approximate (I also have a version that more accurately shows date ranges and their level of confidence, but a ballpark is good enough for a blog post).

Smearwort

Aristolochia rotunda was known as “smearwort” due to its perceived medicinal value, or “round-rooted birthwort” (Aristolochia longa is a related plant known as birthwort).

In the following illustrations, note the arrangement of the leaves, the distinctively different ways of drawing the root, and the presence or absence of the dragon (in conjunction with the root style):

Three distinct styles of drawing the aristolochia root in medieval botanical drawings.

There are also a few drawings that fall in between the vague root and the round one but, in general, most are obvious copies of their predecessors.

The Lumpy Root

In the following group of manuscripts, the A. rotunda root is drawn like a sack of marbles, with an accompanying dragon, while the roots in the second chart farther below look like vague lumps or puzzle pieces and do not include the dragon (in other words, the dragon only occurs in drawings with a specific and distinctive style of root drawing).

Note also that in the drawings on the bottom-right (Udine and Vermont herbals) the leaves are different (smaller and more viny), and the dragon or serpent is posed differently:

Medieval examples of Aristolochia rotunda

The similarities between Masson 116, Historia Plantarum, Erbario 106, Sloane 4016, CLM 2853, and Canon Misc 408 are very obvious. The arrangement of the leaves and the pose of the dragon are unmistakable. Even the pretzel curl in the dragon’s tail has been copied.

Note however, that the distinctive wings of the dragon are not present in the Erbario and Canon Misc drawings. It’s a small difference but an important one that strengthens the possible connection between Canon Misc 408 and Erbario 106.

The CLM 28531 image is hard to see, but the dragon has wings, so it is more similar to Masson 116 than to Erbario 106 or Canon Misc.

BnF Lat 17844 is of particular interest as it faithfully copies the leaf shapes and arrangement seen in the Masson/Historia Plantarum/Erbario group, and the marble-sack root, but includes small changes to the dragon’s head and tail (it is looped, but not in a pretzel). Thus it is unlikely that BnF Latin 17844 influenced Misc 408 or CLM 28531.

Note that I have color-coded some of the manuscripts, and there are two color-codes around the borders of Erbario 106 and Canon Misc 408. This is because I discovered there were images from more than one tradition in these manuscripts. This demonstrates that not all manuscripts are copied from a single source or, in some cases, that two or more herbals have been bound together.

So far, I haven’t found any Aristolochia marble-sack roots with dragons prior to the 14th century. Masson 116 appears to be the earliest (in manuscripts viewable online). Historia Plantarum includes essentially the same drawing and was created close in time to Masson 116. Even the dragon’s wavy out-pointed ears are present:

Aristolochia rotunda roots with dragons in medieval herbal manuscripts

Scholars are still debating whether the original source for the later manuscripts was Masson 116 or some other exemplar.

Mixed Sources? Or a coincidence?

The relationship between the Masson/Historia Plantarum/Sloane manuscripts and the Udine/Vermont herbals is very intriguing. The leaves in the latter two are smaller and vinier, yet the marble-sack root and dragon are present in the Udine herbal (but without the pretzel-curl tail). The Vermont herbal is exactly like the Udine herbal in some ways, but for this plant, a woman and a serpent replace the dragon.

But the Udine and Vermonth herbals don’t follow the English examples either, which generally feature a round cyclamen-style root and numerous flower buds (in contrast to Aristolochia longa, which were drawn without flower buds):

Note that the textual descriptions in the first group above are quite terse, whereas, they are quite a bit more extensive in the Udine/Vermont herbals and the English herbals. Some of these manuscripts were self-contained (e.g., Historia Plantarum), while others were intended to be used with companion texts that had more information about the plants. Still others were never finished.

The Vaguely Lumpy Roots

Now let’s look at the drawings on the left side of the chart, which are mainly from Italian and French manuscripts. You will see immediately that the roots in the manuscripts on the left are drawn differently from those on the right. They are only vaguely lumpy and don’t look like they’ve been stuffed with marbles.

The leaves also tend to be smaller than the Masson/Historia Plantarum group (except for the Udine and Vermont herbals), and lack the double in-curving vine, and there is no dragon (there is, however, a snake in Estense Alpha which might be mnemonic, as one of the names of the plant is “snake root”).

In the left-hand group, the similarity between Circa Instans 626 and Tractatus 9136 is very clear, and if you pay attention to the larger leaf and the turned leaf, the similarity to Egerton 747 also becomes apparent:

Palatino 586 generally follows the basic plant form of the herbals on the left, but often includes unusual figures. In this case, there is an owl at the top of the plant and three faces in the root. The center one might might be an animal, perhaps a dragon, lion, or a demon. Sometimes I can readily identify the inspiration for the figures in Pal. 586, and other times they appear to be unique inventions. Most of them do, however, relate to the plant in some way:

Aristolochia rotunda in Palatino 586 medieval manuscript

Dragon Tails

Let’s take a closer look at the dragons, which are drawn in a fairly distinctive style:

Pics of marble-sack roots and dragons with pretzel-tails illustrating medieval Aristolochia rotunda

There are very obvious similarities between the drawings in rows 1 and 2, even though the row 2 dragons lack wings.

The third group is similar to the first two in significant ways, as in the shape of the root, but there are clear differences in the plant leaves and the way the dragon and serpent are portrayed. Is it a coincidence that the dragon is included with the root? Or did someone see the dragon-style root and then create their own variation?

Here is a closeup of the dragon in BnF Latin 17844, which is essentially the same as the earlier manuscripts but posed a little differently:

Aristolochia rotunda dragon, BnF Latin 17844

The dragon’s neck is curved a little more, and the tail lacks the pretzel, but otherwise it is similar to the Masson/Historia Plantarum and Sloane group.

The Pretzel-Tail Dragon

Long ears, flames, and wings are common in medieval dragons. The tail is usually straight or curled, or is embellished like a leaf motif. Sometimes the tail has another, smaller dragon-head. Here are some examples:

Examples of common dragon styles in medieval art.

Many of these dragons have curled tails, and long wavy ears are easy to find in both Latin and Hebrew manuscripts, but it is difficult to find pretzel tails. Sometimes one can find a clove-hitch tail or a Celtic-knot tail, but they are generally more ornate and decorative than the pretzel-tail:

Ornately-looped dragon tail forom a 15th-century Italian manuscript — Ornate tail with double loop, Felice Feliciano, Verona, Italy, c. 1472

This Bohemian dragon has a pretzel tail, but it is very tightly knotted, has an unusual right-angle and fleur-de-lis tail, and is drawn in a different style from the ones in the herbal manuscripts, with a scalloped outline:

Dragon with curled tail in Graz MS 287 — Double curl, tight pretzel-knot and fleur-de-lis tail in Graz MS 287 (13th or 14th century?)

I searched long and hard for examples of pretzel tails and found one that is vaguely like a pretzel in a child’s marginal drawing in a Swiss manuscript:

Marginal drawing rotated [Codex Sang. 754, Glarus, Switzerland, c. 1466 or later]

I’m not sure if this one qualifies. It has a pretzel-tail but also a small dragon-head on the tail. It is early enough to have influenced 14th-century dragons, however, and not all apocalypse dragons have pretzel-tails, so perhaps the twirled tail inspired later artists:

Bodley 180 apocalypse dragon with pretzel-tail — Dragon with multiple heads and pretzel-tail. Bodley Ms 180, possibly London, c. 1272

Here is a pretzel-tail without the extra dragon-head, also from an apocalypse manuscript:

Pretzel-curl dragon in French apocalypse manuscript — Pretzel-tail dragon in French apocalypse manuscript, c. 1360. A passage from Revelation.

I almost didn’t notice these two blue dragons. They are small and tucked away in the corners of very ornate folios. The one on the left isn’t quite a pretzel, it has an extra loop, but the one on the right qualifies:

Blue dragons with pretzel tails in Morgan M.769 — Small blue pretzel-tail dragons embellishing the corners of ornate folios. It is easy to overlook them amidst all the other details [Morgan MS M.769, Regensburg, c. 1360].

I was starting to get discouraged. A lot of searching yielded only four manuscripts with pretzel-tail dragons. Then I found this:

Cambridge Pepys Library, Magdalene College, c. 1400

This find is significant because these are diagrams in a model book, specifically created for illustrators to copy. There are numerous dragons of different styles, but this one has a pretzel tail, wings, and long curved ears like those of the Masson group of manuscripts. The only problem is it may have been created a few years later and thus could not have influenced the herbal illustrators.

I haven’t located enough pretzel-tails to generalize about their origins, but the above examples are from England, France, and southern Germany (and possibly Bohemia for the one that is tightly knotted). One thing is clear, they are not common, but they are apparently not localized either.

So let’s get back to the plants, and the Voynich Manuscript…

Is Aristolochia in the VMS?

Are there any drawings in the VMS that resemble drawings of Aristolochia rotunda?

In general, medieval drawings of Aristolochia are slightly viny (some of them are distinctly viny), and most of them have heart-shaped leaves. The arrangement of the leaves is not very accurate—sometimes alternate, sometimes opposite (in real life, Aristolochia leaves are alternate, and lightly clasp the stem).

Flowers are usually only shown in English manuscripts, most of the others omit them. The flowers are in between the leaves. No one drew the seedheads, which look like tiny indented green watermelons.

What about the VMS “dragon” and the nearby plant?

VMS plant 25v with little critter by the plant.

There is a small critter that vaguely resembles a dragon on VMS f25v but the plant has elliptical leaves arranged in a rosette and does not look like Aristolochia. Some have suggested this is a dog pulling out a mandrake plant, but the leaf veins are wrong for mandrake and mandrake was almost always drawn with berry-like fruits and a parsnip-like root.
Plant 25v is far more similar to plants like Plantago, False Hellebore (Veratrum album), Lilium, and Dracaena—plants with parallel veins and whorled leaves—than it is to Aristolochia.

Plantago is not usually shown with a dragon, but there are rare exceptions, as in BnF Latin 17844, which has a long-tailed dragon to the right of the plant. I am skeptical of there being a connection based only on this, however, because the 17844 illustrator drew numerous dragons.

Perhaps VMS 27v could be considered for Aristolochia. It’s slightly viny and has a puzzle root, but the flowers are completely wrong, the leaves are not heart-shaped or clasping, and the leaf margins are distinctly toothed, so I think 27v (left) is more likely to be something like Agrimony rather than Aristolochia. Agrimony even has a little star-like frilled calyx when it starts to go to seed—similar to the frill on the VMS flowerhead, and there are other plants with distinct frills.

One VMS plant that might qualify as Aristolochia is Plant 1v, which is somewhat viny, has a big lumpy root, and a rounded seedpod. However, there are other plants, like Hypericon and Nightshade that resemble VMS 1v more, and it’s possible the root is mnemonic rather than literal (it looks like a cross between a bear claw and a lump of fabric), so an ID of Aristolochia is tentative.

Summary

It was fun to look for dragons, but I haven’t seen a match for the Masson- or Udine-style dragon in the Voynich Manuscript. I’m not even certain the little critter on 27v is a dragon. Maybe it’s a giraffe-camel, or a turtle with long ears.

As for Aristolochia, lumpy roots can be drawn in many ways and the VMS small-plants section doesn’t include the whole plant, so it’s difficult to identify them with any certainty, but it’s possible that Aristolochia (rotunda or longa) is in there… somewhere.

J.K. Petersen

Voynich Portal

Ruminations about the mysterious 15th century "cipher manuscript"

Monthly Archives: July 2019

Fire & Ice

Levels of Complexity in Medieval Charts

Toward a Concept of a Unified Whole

Other Possibilities

Missing Links

VMS Layout

Sources

Incomplete Zodiacs

Taking Stock

Crayfish & Lizardy Scorpius Mixed with Classical Themes

Contrasting Examples

Back to the Crayfish-Lizardy Group

Diverging from Tradition, But Only a Little

The Other Side of Europe

Unusual Framing

Cross-Border Influence

Origins of This Thematic Tradition

Summary

How Does the VMS Crossbow Fit In?

Summary

Dragon Tails

Overview of Herbal Traditions

The Process of Identification

Smearwort

The Lumpy Root

Mixed Sources? Or a coincidence?

The Vaguely Lumpy Roots

Dragon Tails

The Pretzel-Tail Dragon

Is Aristolochia in the VMS?

Summary